From a social psychological point of view

From a social psychological point of view Group behaviour (how the individual affects a group and vice-versa) has been widely studied in social psychology but has been hard to theorise (Brown, 2007). Within social psychology there are many social psychological perspectives that have used different theoretical frameworks to study group behaviour. Although each perspective is in agreement that social categorisation (the way an individual and others are classified part of the same or different social groups) and social identity (the way that being part of a social group can give individuals a sense of self) are important in group membership (Phoenix, 2007), the way they are both treated in each perspective varies. This essay will show this by using the cognitive social perspective (namely the social identity theory-SIT) and the critical discursive perspective and explain their ontological assumptions and different approaches to social categorisation and social identity. This essay will argue that from a social psychological poi nt of view, group membership is not primarily a cognitive matter. It will also argue that social and individual sides of group membership should not be seen as dichotomies but as interactive, dynamic and influenced by power relations. The cognitive social approach has an ontological assumption that people are information processing individuals (Hollway, 2007) whose thought processes are shaped by and create the world that they live in (The Open University, DVD 1, 2007). There are many different traditions within this approach, although this essay will concentrate on the social identity tradition. The social identity tradition was designed to break away from previous cognitive miser traditions of the approach that assumed that the social was just something that affected the individual (Brown, 2007). Although it shared the same ontological assumption as the cognitive miser tradition and assumed that individuals had limited and fixed cognitive mechanisms (Dixon, 2007), it also differed from it because it saw individuals as socialised thinkers where group membership played a part in structuring the individuals thoughts (The Open University, DVD 1 2007). The social identity tradition led Tajfel and Turner (1979, cited in Brown, 2007) to develop the social identity theory (SIT). SIT attempted to use a combined social and cognitive approach to studying inter-group relations; it saw the social as more than just something that affects individuals. It attempted to find out how people identified with groups and how this affected their judgements (Brown, 2007). SIT explained how group membership and inter-group relations are based on self categorisation, social comparison and the construction of a shared self definition (Brown, 2007). SIT is currently one of the leading theories in group processes; although this has led to power relations where group identification is still seen as mostly a cognitive process. The focus on cognitive mechanisms also stresses that group processes are still seen as individualistic and so misses out a lot of the influence that society has on the individual or group. In contrast to SIT, the critical discursive perspective argues that discourse and social practices are what make up an individual and their social world; individuals are seen as socially constructed, continent and situated (The Open University, DVD 1, 2007). Unlike SIT that studies how cognitive mechanisms allow an individual to identify with a group; the critical discursive perspective looks at how groups and group identities are created by the individual through discourse and the different ways that these groups are dynamic, flexible and changeable. Categorisation is therefore seen as an active and out there rather than a process that is internal (Brown, 2007). Akin to the cognitive social perspective, there are different approaches in the critical discursive perspective, for example, some researchers accept the reality of given categories (Billig, 2002, cited in Brown, 2007) whilst others argue that categories are socially constructed (Potter and Reicher, 1987, cited in Phoenix, 2 007). Power relations also blight the critical discursive perspective as discourses can be interpreted differently and each discourse available within each culture is politically and ideologically constructed. But, the critical discursive perspective does go beyond the individual-society dualism to look at how the individual and social come together to construct groups. SIT and the critical discursive perspective see categorisation and group membership differently. SIT sees categorisation and group membership as distorted and individualistic. It was developed from Tajfels (1957, cited in Brown, 2007) early coin experiments which led him to conclude that by combining a continuous dimension of judgement (coin value) with a clear-cut category dimension (size difference) would resulted in a cognitive bias and therefore a faulty judgement within and between the categories. Tajfel (1959, cited in Brown, 2007) saw that this bias could be used to explain how individuals perceive others using cognitive variables, like intelligence, for the continuous dimension of judgement and social variables, like nationality, for the clear-cut category dimension. Like the coins, Tajfel (1959, cited in Brown, 2007) hypothesised that individuals would stereotype group members and exaggerate inter-group differences. Tajfel and Turner (1970, cited in Brown, 2007) undertook some minimal group experiments to test this hypothesis. These experiments were purely cognitive; there was no reason for the groups to dislike or be competitive towards each other and therefore this shows how the cognitive bias and distortion can occur. The groups were formed by dividing participants according to a random preference. Participants were asked to distribute money to one of two participants; they only knew of each others group membership. Like hypothesised, the participants tended to reward people who belong to the same group as themselves at the expense of those who belong to the rival group, even if this was at the expense of maximising their own groups profit. So, in SIT individuals categorise themselves and others into groups then identify with the groups that heighten their self esteem and then compare their group with other groups by contrasting the good things about their group to the bad things about the other groups (Brown, 2007). Tajfel and Turner (1969, cited in Brown, 2007) argued that if an individual identifies themselves as being part of a category and consider themselves as part of that category then they are part of that category. But, biases are inevitable in SIT because the categories an individual uses serve a purpose (to preserve self esteem). As the categories used in SIT are social, this means that where the individual lives can affect their categorisation mechanisms (Brown, 2007). For example, to heighten the individuals self esteem, the group the individual sees him/herself as having membership to have to select a relevant out-group to compare itself favourably with. The selection of this out-group depends on what is important to the society that the individual is living in at the time (Brown, 2007). Therefore group membership is created by categorisation, a cognitive mechanism, and the social merely interacts with this mechanism. So therefore SIT emphasises individual, internal processes of group membership and how group membership occurs is primarily a cognitive matter. The critical discursive perspective, however, sees categorisation and group membership as more as something individuals do through language in everyday interaction. This can be seen in the way that social categories are constructed in discourse, for example, Potter and Reicher (1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007) undertook discourse research using communities. They used the social categorisation theory as a basis for their research which argued that if an individual perceived themselves to be part of a group, they behaved as a stereotypical member of the group when with the group; their personality shifted from an individual emphasis to a social emphasis which would be reflected in their discourse. Potter and Reicher (1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007) analysed discourses of community that circulated after the St Pauls riot in Bristol in the 1980s and saw that and saw that many different discourses were given of the same event; they called these different versions community repertoires. In these different community repertoires they saw that the use of the term community and who was a member of this group was very fluid, inconsistent and flexible. The same account could construct the term community in different ways, for example, the police could be constructed as being part of the community (which makes the riot an intra-group conflict) or the police could be seen as outside of the community (which makes the riot an inter-group conflict). The community could also be seen as a reference to things like lifestyle or the local residents or even as another term for the black community (Potter and Reicher, 1987, cited in Phoenix, 2007). This approach sees groups in terms of individual and social relationships which move away from the individual-social dichotomies of the cognitive social approaches. Therefore group membership is created by discourse which is not a cognitive mechanism, so groups are constructed. So therefore the critical discursive perspective emphasises external, individual and societal processes of group membership and so how group membership occurs is not a cognitive matter. How SIT and the critical discursive perspective study prejudice can expand on how they each view group processes, how they see the individual and society and how they see power relations within group processes. SIT argues that categorisation encourages individuals to see the good in their in-group and compare it to the bad in the out-group which leads people to prejudiced thinking (Dixon, 2007). SIT recognises that there are social aspects of inter-group processes, like assimilation, but at the heart of SIT are the cognitive aspects of group processes (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). SIT suggests that individualistic cognitive mechanisms are the cause of prejudice and inter-group processes. Power relations also occur with SIT as its dominance may have affected how inter-group relations are viewed. The critical discursive perspective, however, argues that how individuals talk about groups and construct group identities is a better way to view the different ways that individuals categorise e ach day (Brown, 2007; DD307 Course Team, 2007). The critical discursive perspective takes into account how an individual uses discourses and how society is involved in inter-group processes (DD303 Course Team, 2007). The critical discursive perspective argues that how an individual makes sense of their reality is affected by their culturally available linguistic resources (Potter and Wetherell, 1987, cited in Dixon, 2007). In this approach, individuals can only categorise and form prejudice because their society shares a language which enables them to construct identities and social relations (Dixon, 2007). Power relations are created in this approach depending on the discourses used by individuals and groups to construct a reality that is of best interest to them (Cooper and Kaye, 2007). This approach does not believe that stereotypes are caused by cognitive mechanisms (Hamilton and Troiler. 1986, cited in Dixon, 2007) they believe that collective belief systems causes the conflicts seen between groups (Eidelson and Eidelson, 200 3, cited in Dixon, 2007). Billig (2002, cited in Brown, 2007) moved from SIT to the critical discursive perspective and began to find limitations within SIT. For example, he saw that SIT assumed that categories that individual used to self categorise were fixed, stable and universal, whereas he argued that the categories used in SIT for prejudice were culturally determined, active, flexible, dynamic and constructed through language so cannot be explained in terms of psychological processes. SIT also assumes that the way individuals identify with groups is to help their self esteem when Billig (2002, cited in Brown, 2007) argued that this could not provide an explanation of extreme hate or the motivation for violence, hate or bigotry. But there have also been criticisms with the critical discursive perspective approach to groups, for example, Dixon (2007) noted that it neglects emotion and cognition in favour of language details, this does not make sense to psychology which is about the mind. It would also be difficult to believe that strongly felt emotions are only social constructions through interaction with others via language. The critical social perspective also does not explain how new groups are formed, for example, Emos, nor can they explain social change. There must also be a cognitive process that produces discourse as that is where meaning comes from; it cannot only come from external discourse. SIT (representing cognitive social psychology) and critical discursive perspective have shown the extent to which group membership can be seen as primarily a cognitive matter from a social psychological point of view. SIT seems to rely on inner cognitive mechanisms for group membership whereas the critical discursive perspective seems to rely on outer constructions. As SIT suggests, the cognitive mechanisms of group membership seem to be important for understanding the world, although like the critical discursive perspective suggests, how categories are constructed using discourse processes are important for this understanding too. So therefore, from a social psychological point of view group membership is not primarily a cognitive matter, but instead group membership can be seen as both a combined cognitive and social matter. This essay has also shown that social and individual sides of group membership should not be seen as dichotomies but as dynamic, interactive and influenced by power relations. Word Count: 2157 (excluding title). Brown, S. D. (2007) Intergroup processes: Social Identity Theory in Langdridge, D. and Taylor, S. (2007) (eds) Critical readings in Social Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. DD307 Course Team (2007) DD307 Project Booklet in Horton-Salway, M. (2007) (ed), Social Psychology: Critical Perspectives on Self and Others, Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Dixon, J. (2007) Prejudice, conflict and conflict reduction in Hollway, W., Lucy, H. and Phoenix, A. (2007) (eds) Social Psychology Matters. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Hollway, W, (2007) Social psychology: past and present, in Hollway, W., Lucy, H. and Phoenix, A. (2007) (eds) Social Psychology Matters. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. Phoenix, A. (2007) Intragroup processes: entitativity in Langfridge, D. and Taylor, S. (2007) eds Critical readings in Social Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University Press. The Open University (2007) in Social Psychology: Critical Perspectives on Self and Others, DVD 1, DD307 (2007), The Open University.

Military Compensation versus Civilian Compensation

The advantages of a career in the U. S. military greatly outweigh working in a civilian career when considering compensation such as education, salary, health care, and retirement. In today’s economy, everyone is looking to receive the most from his or her employer. A person wants a salary that can provide for his or her family, a healthcare plan with little out-of-pocket cost, retirement benefits to plan for the future, and an education that makes it all that possible.The military offers exemplary tuition assistance and salary when benefits such as the basic housing allowance are taken into consideration. In the same way, the military’s retirement plans and health care benefits are superior to that of civilian employers because of its low cost. The following will compare military compensation to civilian compensation, and why a career in the military provides a superior benefit package. Although there are some benefits to civilian compensation packages, the military of fers the best educational program. Few civilian employers offer tuition reimbursement for employees.Those that do offer tuition reimbursement; require that the employee pay the cost of tuition up front and complete the class before receiving reimbursement. The employee must also maintain a certain grade point average (GPA) to qualify for tuition reimbursement. Once an employee has completed his or her education, the employer often requires the person to remain employed for a certain amount of time after receiving tuition reimbursement. If the employee terminates employment before the agreed upon timeframe, the employee may have to repay tuition reimbursement funds, (Smith, 2008).Unlike civilian employers, the military offers a superior education program called the GI Bill. The GI Bill pays full tuition and fees to the school, a monthly housing allowance, and an annual books and supplies stipend, (U. S. Department of Veteran Affairs, 2011). In the same way, The GI Bill requires that the service member maintains a certain GPA and consequently, if a service member fails to complete or pass a class, he or she must reimburse the Veteran Affairs Educational Department. An additional advantage of The GI Bill is the ability to relinquish benefits to a spouse or a child.Therefore, by choosing a career in the military a person has many more opportunities to advance his or her education versus choosing a civilian career, where educational opportunities are limited. Admittedly, there are some benefits to the civilian compensation structure, the total military compensation package is better. According to â€Å"Entry Level Salary† (n. d), the average salary for an entry-level civilian position is $37,000. 00 per year, whereas as entry-level military base salary is $16,000. 00 per year, (Dyer, 2008).Compensating for low salaries, the military offers sign on bonuses of up to $40,000.00, (The Scoop On Army Enlistment Bonuses, 2010), basic housing allowances, basic allow ance for subsistence, overseas pay when stationed in another country, and hazard duty pay when deployed to a hazardous theater. Another significant difference between the two employers is how wage increases and promotions are received. The majority of civilian employers use annual performance reviews to reward employees with a pay raise or a promotion whereas military service members must meet time in service, time in grade, performance and education standards to receive a promotion and a raise.In conclusion, the military does receive a better compensation package when bonuses, basic housing allowance, and other itemized pay are taken into consideration. While civilian and military employers both offer similar retirement plans, military employees have a more cost-efficient plan. Civilians have two types of retirement plans to choose from: a defined-benefit plan and a defined-contribution plan. Defined-benefit plans have a pension of some kind that the employer pays for and a defined -contribution plan is typically a 401k that an employee invests his or her own money in to, (The CNA Corporation, 2008).Becoming eligible for a defined-benefit plan requires that employees work for the company for a minimum of five years; however, retirement payouts are larger the longer an employee stays with a company. Civilian employees must also wait until at least age 62 to retire and can retire anytime between the age 62 and 70; however, retirement benefits are reduced when an employee retires early. Military retirement plans are very different from their civilian counterparts, in that military service members do not invest any money into their retirement plan.After 15 years of service a military employee can choose between two plans: a standard High-3 plan or a Redux retirement plan. The standard High-3 plan bases retirement pay on the highest average basic pay for 36 months of a service member’s career. Choosing the Redux retirement plan, a service member will receive a $30,000. 00 bonus, a percentage-based annuity, and basic pay. Military employees can retire after 20 years of service, so the average age of a service member at retirement is age 40. Another remarkable benefit that military service members can use for retirement is a thrift savings plan that resembles a civilian 401k.The most significant difference in a thrift savings plan is that the military does not match any employee contributions. By not matching what a service member invests into a thrift savings plan the employee can contribute more money into a tax-deferred plan than he or she could contribute to an individual retirement account, (The CNA Corporation, 2008). By not contributing to a retirement plan, military service members will save more money and be able to invest more toward a future than civilian employees.Although military and civilian employers both offer health care benefits, the benefits offered by the military are more cost efficient. Civilian employer’s h ealth care packages require an employee to pay an average annual premium of $13,000. 00 to cover a family’s health care. Employees must also incur the cost of copays, an amount a person pays at the time of service; and deductibles, an amount that the insured person must meet before health benefits are used. When choosing a doctor, hospital, or specialist; a civilian healthcare plan has several limitations to overcome.On the contrary, active duty service members pay no premiums, copays, or deductibles for health care benefits. Unlike civilian employers, the military offers health care benefits to reserve (part-time) service members, veterans, and retired personnel at low-cost, affordable rates and service members can use any doctor, hospital, or specialist that accepts TRICARE, the military’s main healthcare provider. The government is working on raising the standards of civilian health care to the more cost-efficient plan the military has incorporated; however, there i s still much to accomplish.In conclusion, when choosing a compensation package based on education, salary, retirement, and health care; the military offers a superior compensation package than that of a civilian career. Choosing a military career will not only provide compensation and health care to take care of a family, it will provide a retirement plan for the future and an education to better oneself. Most of all, when looking at civilian and military compensation packages side-by-side a potential employee can determine that the best option is a military career for its stability and cost-efficient compensation packages.

The Do This, Get That Guide On Good Rogerian Essay Topics

The Do This, Get That Guide On Good Rogerian Essay Topics Depending on the intricacy of the matter, the degree to which people are broken up about it, and the points you wish to argue, any component of a Rogerian argument can be expanded. You will need to develop a superior argument, which encompasses not just your primary point, but also all the pieces which make this up. Quite simply, the Rogerian argument examines the idea from various sides and doesn't categorically deny any of them. It discusses the proposing and opposing viewpoints with the aim of the reader being able to understand the issues. Think gradually on the ideas you wish to share in all critical portions of your paper. There are even ideas on driving and transportation so you are going to be able to discover something which you are able to write about. One of the greatest approaches to change anybody's mind is with an emotional investment. When you're picking your topic, remember that it's much simpler to write about something which you presently have interest ineven in case you don't know a great deal about it. What to Do About Good Rogerian Essay Topics For your Rogerian essay thesis statement, you'll need to state your principal point in the shape of a thesis statement. Another reason is to observe how well students argue on distinct views and demonstrate understanding of the studied subject. A Rogerian essay is intended to help students understand issues from two distinct perspectives to develop an agreeable solution. An argumentative essay requires you to choose a topic and have a position on it. Deciding on your topic isn't that easy. The essay topic discusses the usage of cellular phones while driving. When you are requested to select a great topic for your argument, start with something you're familiarized with. Picking an emotional topic is also a superb idea. Good Rogerian Essay Topics Help! Before you begin your argument or essay, pick an acceptable theme. Make sure you are knowledgeable enough to compose a high-quality essay on the matter. Having selected a great topic to argue about, at this point you will need to make an argumentative essay outline. Researching the topic will permit you to find out more about what fascinates you, and should you pick something you truly like, writing the essay will be more enjoyable. Then take a look at a list of argumentative essay advice to help you begin. At times you might require some expert help with argumentative essay topics. Several More Examples Now that you get a great comprehension of these types of essays, the remainder of this lesson will just be a list of possible essay topics. Take inspiration from such topic suggestions to compose funny college essays! The Hidden Facts on Good Rogerian Essay Topics You've got to support your theses with data, statistics, or any type of reliable information ( for instance, to show what's the proportion of terrorists among the refugees from Syria). The dearth of excellent support sources will end in a decrease grade. Too much private information is in danger on these types of social media sites. There's no very clear right or wrong answer when it has to do with using torture to get information. The procedure for grading student papers can be a really boring one. At length, do not make a frequent mistake a great deal of students make in the concluding paragraph. To compose an excellent argumentative essay the students first must investigate several sides of the argument, which enables them to make an educated stance. You are going to be surrounded by writing professionals throughout the plan of order placement, and when you opt to purchase essay and pick an allocated writer, things will get even more exciting. Fresh approaches to demonstrate how ineffective it is, needless to say. Before writing any sort of content, make sure you know of how to address this specific paper kind and avoid being adverse to your own ideas and ideas and just make them stream easily and smoothly. If you're still searching for aid with your Rogerian essay, there are numerous places it is possible to turn to. Obviously, your imaginary adversary doesn't have an actual possibility to speak with you, but you need to remember that any Rogerian essay may act as a foundation for a possible future dialogue. It's important to select debatable argumentative essay topics as you need opposing points that you may counter to your own points. Further, you'll find out the way to compose a Rogerian essay pursuing a specific aim. The Rogerian essay isn't aimed at changing somebody else's mind, so forget about aggressive strategies and search for reasonable dialogue.

The Manifest Destiny, And The Economic Rewards - 1456 Words

The influence of the â€Å"Manifest Destiny† and the possible economic rewards were the driving force behind Jefferson’s desire to send Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to go on a three year expedition westwards to the Pacific Ocean in August of 1803. While the journey to the West provided Lewis and Clark was one that was both fascinating and difficult, the journey back home was one that was filled with obstacles. Some of the difficulties faced on the journey home can be attributed to the climate and topography of the land which are recorded in the journals of Lewis and Clark. During June of 1806, Lewis and Clark are returning home by way of the Missouri River. Clark provides in-depth imagery about the topography of the land during a fishing trip and states: â€Å"the first 20 ms. of their rout was up Commeà ¢p Creek and through a plain open Country, the hills of the Creek Continued high and broken with Some timber near it s borders, the ballance of heir rout was through a high broken Mountanious Country. generally well timbered with pine the soil fertile. in this quarter the meet with abundance of deer and Some big-horned Animals. The East fork of Lewis s river they discribe as one Continued rapid of about 150 yards wide, it s banks are in most places Solid and perpindicular rocks, which rise to a great hight; it s hills are mountanious high. on the top of Some of those hills over which they passed, the Snow had not entirely disappeared, and the grass was just springing up.†Show MoreRelatedIndustrial Revolution Essay1205 Words   |  5 PagesIn 1837, John Deere had engineered a new plow that allowed farmers to farm more land quicker. 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